The results indicated that current mean annual levels of rain acidity over Japan about pH 4. Kang and Kim studied Rice Oryza sativa cv. Tamjinbyeo and Somjinbyeo, Soybeans Glycine max L. Beakun kong and Baekchun, and Sesame Seasmum indicum cv. Samdage and Suweon exposed twice in a week to simulated acid rain of pH 2.
Acid rain caused no visible damage in either of these crops. In rice, the ripening ratio and grain yields decreased with increasing acidity of the simulated rain. Seed yield and seed weight in soybeans were decreased by acid rain, while there were no significant effects in sesame. Soil pH decreased as pH of the simulated acid rain was decreased.
Chung et al. Control plants were sprayed with distilled water at pH 6. Photosynthetic activity on per unit leaf area basis was not affected by SAR in either of the species.
A marked increase in the wettability of P. Severe epidermal layer degradation and cytoplasm depletion were also observed in the palisade cells of treated P. Hosono and Nouchi studied Radish Raphanus sativa L. Treatments were imposed 3 times a week for 1 hour with mm of simulated rainfall at a time. Simulated acid rain at pH 3. The degree of injury was greater on lower leaf positions, particularly cotyledons and primary leaves and foliar injury was more severe at the early stages of growth.
DW of rice plants exposed to acid rain at pH of below 3. During the middle to late growth stages, acid rain treatment did not affect rice growth. The yield of rice remained unaffected at pH 2. Tong et al. Yao et al. Tainung 67 and Taichung sen These reductions were associated with decreases in seed set, number of spikelet per panicle and grain yield.
The pollen germination rate on agar medium at of pH 4. At pH 3. Effects of simulated acid rain were identical in the 2 cultivars. Singh and Agrawal studied wheat Triticum aestivum L. Malviya and varying in cuticular thickness and leaf area exposed to simulated acid rain field of pH 5.
The plants received the acid rain treatment as well as ambient precipitation of unknown acidity. Shoot height, root length, and leaf area were reduced significantly in treated plants of different growth stages.
Above and below ground biomass also decreased significantly in the plants treated with acidic precipitation. Fan and Li studied response of seeds and seedlings of 5 broad leaved species Cinnamomum camphora L.
Germination recorded marked inhibition at the pH 2. At pH 2. In fact, pH 2. Fan and Wang studied seeds and seedlings of 5 broad-leaved species C.
Seed germination was remarkably inhibited by the pH 2. Significant foliar damage, chlorophyll decline, and growth retardation in seedlings of all the species were observed at pH 2. The pH 2. Pal and Kumar investigated effect of simulated acid rain treatments on yield and carbohydrate contents of Capsicum cv. NP A. Flowering was promoted in SAR treated plants.
Numbers of flowers and fruits per plant were decreased in treated plants for all treatments at all pH values, carbohydrate contents of stem and leaf fractions were affected adversely. The effect of simulated acid rain became more pronounced with increased acidity and duration of treatment. Suneela and Thakre studied the responses of two Rice Oryza sativa L. IAT and IP 64 to simulated acid rain and selected chlorophyll contents, net photosynthetic rate, root and shoot length, percent phytotoxicity and dry matter of root and shoot and their ratio as biomonitoring indices.
Among these chlorophyll contents, net photosynthetic rate and percent phytotoxicity served as good biological parameters for evaluating relative sensitivity. SAR was sprayed 27 times during the 75 day experiments. SAR with 2. SAR with pH 4. Generally, total yield, number of fruits, average fruit weight, and fruit diameter and weight decreased with the increase in SAR acidity.
Reductions in total yield and number of fruits at pH 2. Liao et al. Seedlings were transplanted two weeks later, and irrigated with distilled water control or simulated acid rain pH 4. Crop injury, enzyme activity in leaves and roots and leaf cell ultra structure were studied before flowering. Injury symptoms were most pronounced in seedlings treated with 6. In these plants, the old leaves dried faster, and the number of lateral roots and root nodules were much lower.
Dead cells were observed in the outer layer of roots. The reduction in SOD activity was more adverse in roots than in leaves. Munzuroglu et al. Golden flowers with simulated acid rain solutions with pH ranging from 2. Pollen germination decreased by Acid rain threshold proportion value was around pH 3.
Pollen tube elongation was more sensitive to acid rain than pollen germination. Tyagi et al. The fresh and dry weight of the root and shoot were also inhibited by acidity and the same was true for root weight, shoot weight and root: shoot ratio. Simulated acid rain with a pH of 4. Shoot and root lengths significantly declined at pH 3. Leaf area declined at pH 4.
Biomass of 75 days old plants declined significantly at pH range 4. Net assimilation rate NAR declined significantly at pH 3.
Compared to control, yield of M showed significant reductions at pH 4. The study showed that acid rain has a significantly negative effect on wheat plant performance. Imran and Hussain conducted a greenhouse experiment to study the effect of simulated acid rain SAR of sulfuric acid and nitric acid, alone and in combination, with different pH values on the morphology of Mash Vigna mungo cultivars and Mash during early growth. The treatment comprised: rain water only acid level 0 ; sulfuric acid at pH 5.
Maximum shoot length Cultivar x acid level interaction significantly differed as the maximum value The maximum root length The cultivar x acid level interaction showed significant differences as maximum value The acid level means revealed that the maximum number of leaves 8. The maximum number of leaves 9. Kumaravelu and Ramanujam studied ten day old plants of green gram Vigna radiata L.
Wilczek cv. The acid showers of pH 5. The photosynthetic pigments, soluble protein, reducing and total sugars and starch in both cultivars were higher at pH 5. The acid rains of pH 5. However, the acid rain of extreme acidity pH 2. Vamban was more sensitive than ADT- 1 to acid rain. Huang et al.
Jixin Wampee sprayed 3 times once every 10 days with simulated acid rain of different pH values 5. Acid rain was found to inhibit shoot elongation, but enhanced shoot thickness. Acid rain at pH value 3. The effects of different pH values of acid rain on shoot and fruit growth and development are decreased significantly. Zeng et al.
Seed germination was absolutely inhibited at pH 2. Rice and wheat seeds germinated abnormally at pH 2. In contrast, the percentage of abnormal germination of rice and wheat decreased. The data about physiological aspect demonstrated that water absorption rate, respiratory rate and storage reserve transformation rate of rice, wheat and rape seeds also increased with increasing pH.
The storage loss of rice and wheat increased with increased pH but that of rape decreased. Inhibition index of shoot and root length of three kinds of seeds decreased in relation with increased pH values.
The amplitude difference of index of rice was lower than wheat, and wheat was lower than rape. The data revealed that rice had stronger fastness than wheat and rape, and wheat had stronger fastness than rape under acid rain stress. Sirohi and Khan conducted a field experiment to investigate the effect of acidification on the environment and on fodder crop Trifolium alexandrium cv.
Mascot grown in nearby agricultural fields. Samples of ambient rain water were collected during the rainy seasons of , and Emission of SO 2 was increased from to but decreased in , however, suspended particulate matter SPM decreased after installation of high efficiency electrostatic precipitators in Jubilant Organosys Ltd. Germination percentage of There were significant decreases in the length of root and shoot at pH 4.
Fresh and dry weight of shoot and root revealed the same trend. Necrotic lesions were first observed on the leaves of the plants treated with pH 2. Total leaf area of the plants exposed to simulated acid rain was also reduced significantly. There was a negative correlation between growth index and phytotoxicity percentage. The growth index decreased at all pH levels of acid rain in comparison to control.
Pragati and Dhaka investigated plants of Zinnia elegans sprayed with simulated acid rain pH 5. Root and shoot lengths, fresh matter, and dry weight decreased as the pH of the acid rain decreased and the duration of exposure increased. The reduction in dry matter was greater in roots than in shoots. Mai et al. Yamgmai 12 and observed that simulated acid rain had considerable effect on wheat growth and yield. The growth of leaf area as well as the mass of fresh leaf per unit area declined greatly at pH 3.
The plant height was obviously lowered, and the visible injury on leaf surface was observed at pH 2. Under acid rain stress, leaf chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoid contents, especially chlorophyll a decreased obviously. Acid rain also suppressed the synthesis of soluble sugar and reduced sugar, and the suppression was stronger at pH 3. The total free amino acid and soluble protein contents in leaves decreased with increasing acidity, and were significantly lower than control when the pH was 3.
In a similar study using simulated acid rain of pH 5. Liang et al. Qinyou 7. Starting from the 3-leaf stage, small-size sprayers were used to water the plants at a day interval, separately, with above 5 acid rains as natural precipitation. In the field experimental period, the rape growth and development were recorded up to flowering stage; measurement was made of plant height, leaf area, weight of 1 cm2 fresh leaves and injured area in percentage etc. The stress influences the soluble protein at pH 5.
The specific values of above indexes as well as the mechanisms for their effect on acid rain concentration remains to be further explored. Shaukat and Khan investigated the effect of simulated acid rain SAR on growth, yield and physiological parameters in tomato.
SAR exposure pH 3. SAR exposure at pH 3. The effects were more pronounced at lower pH 3. Reducing and nonreducing sugars were diminished significantly to varying degree by SAR solutions of pH 3.
Non-reducing sugars declined to a greater extent than did the reducing sugars and this effect were more pronounced in SAR-treatment of pH 3. SAR-exposure of pH 3. Both SAR and A.
The wheat plants inoculated with lower inoculum levels 2, and 5, and exposed with lower acidity level 5. While, the suppressions in all above parameters were increased with increase in acidity level pH 4. However, nematodes were killed by SAR except in treatments with lower dose and higher inoculum levels 5. Han studied effect of acid rain at different pH 1. Seed germination rate, germinated vigor, germination index, seedling root length and hypocotyl length tended to decrease with the decrease in pH.
All V. Verdc seeds were musty when pH was 1. Verma et al. Capsicum annuum, Lycopersicon esculentum and Solanum melongea. The species were raised in earthen pots with agriculture soil.
Chlorophyll contents were more or less unaffected in all the three species but the growth parameters and fruiting was severely curtailed with increasing acidity. Highest suppressions were reduced at pH 3. Photosynthetic pigments Chl a, Chl b, total Chl and carotenoids , seed carbohydrate soluble and insoluble , seed protein soluble and insoluble as well as leaf epidermal parameters number of stomata, stomatal aperture and length of trichomes also decreased significantly with the increase of acidity.
Lal and Singh studied effects of simulated acid rain of different pH [distilled water Their results revealed that biomass and lengths of the studied plant parts decreased with decreasing pH of acid rain solution. Comparison of biomass and length at peak growth and maturity stages recorded maximum difference in control and the difference narrowed with increasing acidity. The differences at acidic treatments were well-marked with leaves followed by roots and shoots, respectively.
In case of length, roots and shoots were more adversely affected as compared to leaves. Acid rain application caused reduction in leaf area which has direct bearing on growth of roots and shoots, and overall plant growth. Concluding remarks and future perspectives The above survey of literature demonstrates that natural and simulated acid rains affect the germination, growth, biomass, behavior of budding, flowering and leaf abscission, photosynthesis, metabolic processes, enzymes activities, cytoplasm properties, pollen behavior and yield in range of plant species.
SAR effects at these stages are likely to have short-term as well as long-term effect on plant life growth and yield. The concentration of acid rain may further increase due to an extent causing an acidification of cytoplasm to decrease intracellular pH. The capacity of acidic buffering and the mechanism s involved in SAR treated plant systems are still unclear and require deeper investigations.
References 1. Alseher R. Franz, C. Kosak-channing, E. Conn, eds. Back J. Neuvonen, S. Pine needle growth and fine structure after prolonged acid rain treatment in the sub-arctic. Plant Cell and Environment, 17, pp. Banwart W. Finke, P. Porter, J.
Journal of Environmental Quality, 19, pp. Biggs A. Stomatal response of three birth species exposed to varying acute doses of sulphur dioxide. Journal of American Society for Horticultural Science, , pp.
Buman S. Environmental impact of acid rain. Yojana 5, pp. Caporn J. New Phytologist, , pp. Chan W. Acid precipitation in Ontario study.
Daily precipitation chemistry listings and statistical summaries. Due to acid rain the entire fish stocks in certain lakes have been wiped out. The economic livelihood of people who depended on fish and other aquatic life suffers as a result.
Eating fish which may have been contaminated by mercury can cause serious health problems. In addition to loss of plant and animal life as food sources, acid rain gets into the food we eat, the water we drink, as well as the air we breathe. Due to this asthmatic people and children are directly affected. Urban drinking water supplies are generally treated to neutralise some of the effects of acid rain and therefore city dwellers may not directly suffer due to acidified drinking water.
But out in the rural areas, those depending upon lakes, rivers, and wells will feel the effects of acid rain on their health. The acidic water moving through pipes causes harmful elements like lead and copper to be leached into the water.
The treatment of urban water supplies may not include removal of elements like Aluminium, and so is a serious problem in cities too. All living things, whether plants or animals, whether living on land or in the water or trees, are affected either directly or indirectly by acid rain.
Even buildings, bridges and other structures are affected. In cities, paint from buildings have peeled off and colours of cars have faded due to the effects of acid rain. From the Taj Mahal in India to the Washington Monument great buildings all over the world have been affected by the acid rainfall which causes corrosion, fracturing, and discoloration in the structures.
In Europe, structures like The Acropolis in Greece and Renaissance buildings in Italy, as well as several churches and cathedrals have suffered visible damage. In the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico, and in places in South America, ancient Mayan Pyramids are being destroyed by the acid rain.
Temples, murals, and ancient inscriptions which had previously survived for centuries are now showing severe signs of corrosion. Even books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculpture are being affected in museums and libraries, where the ventilation system cannot eliminate the acid particles from the air which circulates in the building. In some parts of Poland, trains are required to run slowly, as the tracks are badly damaged due to corrosion caused by acid rainfall.
The bottom line is that all things on earth are being affected by this problem and the good news is that something is being done to solve it. Pressure from the environmental groups, and public has increased as the effects of the havoc caused by acid rain become more apparent.
Governments all over the world have drawn up plans to tackle this problem. Lakes that have become highly acidic, can be treated by adding large quantities of alkaline substances like quicklime, in a process called liming. Although it has worked in several places, it has not been successful where the lake is very large, making this procedure economically unfeasible, or in other lakes where the flushing rate of the lake waters is too large resulting in the lake becoming acidic again.
The best approach seems to be in prevention. To this end environmental regulations have been enacted to limit the quantity of emissions released in the atmosphere. Several industries have added scrubbers to their smoke stacks to reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide dumped in the atmosphere.
Specially designed catalytic converters are used to ensure that the gases coming out from exhaust pipes of automobiles, are rendered harmless. Several industries which use coal as fuel have begun to wash the coal before using it thereby reducing the amount of Sulphur present in it, and consequently the amount of emissions. Usage of coal with a low Sulphur content also reduces the problem.
We as individuals can take several steps to alleviate the effects of this problem. A reduction in use of vehicles will reduce the amount of emission caused by our vehicles. So do not use the car unless it is absolutely required. For going short distances, walk or try to use a bicycle.
This will not only protect the environment but also improve your health. If the distance is greater, try using public transportation. If you must use your vehicle try forming a car pool and share your vehicle with someone else. Ensure that your vehicle is properly tuned, and fitted with a catalytic converter, to reduce the emissions. Seeds of eleven woody species were exposed to 2.
All treatments also … Expand. Effect of simulated sulfuric acid rain on yield, growth and foliar injury of several crops. Abstract This study was designed to reveal patterns of response of major United States crops to sulfuric acid rain.
Potted plants were grown in field chambers and exposed to simulated sulfuric acid … Expand. View 5 excerpts, references results and background. Response of tree seedlings to acid precipitation— II. Effect of simulated acidified canopy throughfall on sugar maple seedling growth. Abstract Sugar maple seedling radicle growth in a laboratory growth apparatus was significantly reduced after exposure to simulated acidified canopy throughfall at pH 3.
Seedlings exposed … Expand. The experiment … Expand. Effects of long-term exposure to simulated acid rain on conifer needle ultrastructure and hardening status. Enzymatic changes in the rhizosphere of loblolly pine exposed to ozone and acid rain.
Abstract The effects of ozone O 3 and simulated acidic rain SAR on the activity of selected soil enzymes in the rhizosphere of loblolly pine were evaluated. The seedlings Family The effects of simulated acid rain on gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and anti-oxidative enzyme activity in cucumber seedlings Cucumis sativus L.
Jingchun No. Acid … Expand. View 1 excerpt, references results. Germination and Seedling Development. Related Papers.
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